On European Colonialism

         From 1750 to 1913, European nations expanded their realms to encompass almost the entire planet. Revolution, industrialization, and imperialism were central components of this period, and helped to shape and bring about our modern world. As European nations founded colonies the world over, they subjugated the indigenous peoples and civilizations to their rule. Several states overthrew their colonizers through violent, bloody, and sometimes philosophically inspired revolutions. Industrialization propelled technology through the roof, creating more devastating and accurate weapons; easing work on some, and causing work to increase exponentially for others; and brought the world together like never before.          

In 1800, very little of Africa was colonized. Most African colonies were originally trading posts at important ports and bays. In fact, all the way up to 1870s, there was minimal presence of Europeans in Africa. Most European colonists lived in port cities like Cape Town, or settler colonies such as Mozambique or Angola (the only sizeable colonies prior to the 1870s, both Portuguese possessions). The end of the slave trade brought other forms of commerce forth such as ivory and gold to be exchanged for guns, textiles and so forth from European lands.          

Steam-powered ships allowed explorers to venture up the great rivers of Africa—the Nile, Niger, Congo, and the Zambesi—which led the Belgian King Leopold II in the 1870s to send American Henry Morton Stanley to establish a colony in the Congo Basin named the Congo Free State. Alongside Belgian-American ventures, Britain established rule in Egypt. Massive debt was owed by the Egyptian government for trying to build up their state as Ottoman influence declined. Such debt caused Egypt to impose enormous taxes on its citizens which led to civil unrest and even sparked a military rebellion. Such turmoil stemmed Britain to take full control of the country in 1882, in order to protect British investments, but more importantly to protect the well-being of the Suez Canal. The Suez Canal provided Britain with precious, ease-of-passage to India and Australia.          

Leopold’s rule over the Congo Free State was brutal to say the least. The “barbarism” of the natives was met with true barbaric working conditions, sky-high taxes, and forced labor abuse led many humanitarians in Europe to protest Leopold’s regime. It was in 1908 that the Belgian government took control of the colony and proclaimed it as Belgian Congo. Similar barbarism towards natives was seen in South Africa.          

Europe had a presence in southern Africa for centuries before the late 1800s. It was in the year 1652 that the Dutch East India Company founded Cape Town. French and Germans soon settled in the area, utilizing slavery to grow crops and as other sources of labor. However, after the end of Napoleon’s Wars—which lasted from 1799 to 1815—the British seized the Cape Town colony. At first the settlers were known, in the Dutch word for farmers as Boers. Later, they became known as Afrikaners, which is Dutch for African. The use of slavery in the colony was disquieting to the British government, and when the Empire outlawed slavery in 1833, the colonial economy was put in jeopardy and its primary labor force was in question. The Afrikaners felt the need to expand as their population and concentration increased. And so it was that the Afrikaner pioneers, known as voortrekkers pushed northwards, kicking indigenous peoples off their land, proclaiming their own independent republics. By the middle of the 19th Century, however, Britain began to annex those republics into its already massive empire in the Union of South Africa.          

The voortrekkers’ expansion often led to bloody conflict. The Afrikaner technology vastly undermined native efforts to thwart their expansion. Voortrekkers fought off first the Ndebele, and then the Zulu. Conflict was not limited to white-African belligerents, though, as the discovery of diamond and gold showed. Britain carried South Africa at the wayside until in 1867 diamonds were found, and in 1886, gold. Countless British miners, prospectors, and hopefuls increased tension in the already tense colony. These tensions reached a climax in 1899 with the outbreak of the Boer War. Although blacks were not among the belligerents, they bore the most casualties. When, in 1902, the war came to a close, the British sought to ease relations with the Afrikaners. This was done by giving privileges to the colonials and supporting black suppression.          

The Scramble for Africa increased dissent among the European nations, this tension led to the Berlin West Africa Conference in 1884-85 consisting of fourteen European states the United States. The Conference was not attended by a single black official; even though the conference affected blacks drastically. The Conference showed two distinct types of colonialism. One was used early on, and then abandoned. This method involved European governments granting companies vast grants of territory, the right to tax, and to recruit labor. These companies often exploited the environment and indigenous peoples; these acts led to a public outcry of these managements. Such discontent led the colonial powers to develop new ways to rule over their subjects. The French were characteristic of direct rule, and the British were known for indirect rule. Direct rule involved all decisions dealing with the colony being made solely by Europeans. Indirect rule was carried out by Europeans ruling through existing social structures amongst the indigenous tribes, and often supported weaker rulers in order to get their way easier.          

In the Pacific, Europe took a generally distinct approach to colonization. In New Zealand and Australia—ruled both by Britain—Europeans developed colonies and institutions; however, most Pacific islands were used as trading posts, bases, military junctions, and places strictly for resource extraction. Australia was first populated by criminals, but soon actual colonists arrived and settled the arid continent. New Zealand was found by white people while hunting whales and seals; fertile, lush soil attracted settlers, as did copious amounts of timber.          

Europe’s arrival in these two places led to the decimation of native peoples. Decimation both intended, and inadvertent. Disease killed most of the dead, but genocide was also a motive. Smallpox and measles ravaged the population of aborigines and Maoris. Native Australian populations fell from upwards of 700,000 in 1800, to under 100,000 in 1900; whereas Europeans went from slightly over a thousand to nearly four million. New Zealand’s native population plummeted from a quarter-of-a-million in 1800 to less than 50,000 in 1900. European peoples in the island nation swelled to nearly 800,000. Aside from physical genocide, Europe’s new domain was proclaimed terra nullius—“land belonging to no one”—due to the Australian’s nomadic lifestyle.          

The nineteenth century saw the rise of new imperial powers: Japan and the United States. The United States was born as a product of Europe’s imperialism, and defeated a drained British army for independence. Japan rise to empire gave rise to fears of the West encroaching on its shores. In fact, it was the United States that woke Japan up from its period of isolation; an awakening that lead to the rise of a new empire, and this one wasn’t European. The United States gave its new conquered peoples the hope of liberty and freedom; Japan gave the motto “Asia for Asians!” However, American imperialism proved no less harsh and barbaric than European imperialism, and Japanese imperialism was described as “Asia for Japan.” The colonized began to realize that whoever the mother country was, tyranny comes with imperialism.          

Japan was angered by unfair treaties imposed by the Europe and the United States and retaliated with war, not on Europe or the U.S. but with China and Russia. Japan easily defeated both countries, garnered new lands, and established itself as an empire that will not be pushed around. The United States began imperialism in 1803 with the Louisiana Purchase which doubled the size of the nation. Industry propelled the advance of the United States to the Pacific, not only industry but Manifest Destiny. Terrible atrocities were done in the name of Manifest Destiny, and were used to justify those actions. Japan and the United States were thrown into the Industrial Revolution and imperialism. Both used freedom and nationalism to justify their expansion, and both were willing to wage war to secure it.          

Perhaps, a step back from the events of colonialism and taking a look into why will be better for trying to understand imperialism. Although empires have existed for thousands of years, the empires of 19th and 20th Century Europe—and later the United States and Japan—were different. They expanded not solely through strength of arms, but also—and mainly—through trade, diplomacy, and the effects of capitalism in the West. Ancient empires controlled usually with a bloated military and fear; however, industrial empires controlled through diplomatic relations between the colony and the motherland.          

Industrial empires believed that the nation’s survival was tied to its successive acquisitions in empire. In fact, personal fortunes were thought to be tied to the state of the empire. One reason such empires flourished was due to their surpassing technology; the might of their arms and speed of their ships and trains intimidated indigenous peoples. Personal pride led some to build empires for their nation themselves. British citizen Cecil Rhodes worked many long years to garner territory for Britain. Religion was one of the main impetuses for expansion; however, the religion was often forced upon the locals.          

Communication technologies increased exponentially from 1800 to 1900. At the turn of the 19th century, it would take a year to travel by ship from London to Bombay by a sailing ship. Steamships decreased the time, and also allowed voyagers to travel up river and against the wind. The construction of canals in the Suez and Panama greatly shortened the time to sail across the world. Later, the invention of railroads and the telegraph made the time for communication even less.          

Now, a return to the events of colonial imperialism should be executed. In Asia, Russia has long been a present threat, but with the coming of the 19th century, France, the Netherlands, and Britain increased the threat of conquest. The Dutch East India Company established the Dutch East Indies; the British took control of India, Bangladesh, Pakistan, Myanmar, Malaya, and Northern Borneo. France conquered Indochina—present day Vietnam and Laos. The United States had acquired the Philippines from Spain, and Japan won the Koreas from Russia. Thus it was that China was surrounded by outsiders. The outsiders forced China into unfair treaties, plunging the realm into poverty.
         
Imperialism tied the world together like never before. After the empires disintegrated, the world’s economy was still structured the same, the former colonies still depended on the former motherland. Imperialism set the seeds of nationalism and interdependence among the world, stirred revolution, and brought many natives to the brink. Imperialism still shapes our world, and until it doesn’t, we will be ruled by it.