History Combined: Women and Christianity

"But now outside my father's house, I am nothing. Yes, I have often looked on women's nature in this regard, that we are nothing. When we reach puberty and can understand, we are thrust and sold away from our ancestral gods and from our parents. Some go to strange men's homes, others to joyless houses, some to hostile. And all this once the first night has yoked us to our husband. We are forced to praise and say that all is well."

These words were written by a fifth century, B.C.E. playwright by the name of Sophocles. Even at that time in history women were aware of their place in society, but not always accepting of it. In the same breath, men throughout history have made women objects to be admired and possessions to be tamed. As early as 2200 B.C.E., records have been found that depict a man's advice to his young adult son concerning his need to "get rid of her if she is powerful in the household."

Ironically, the woman of the twenty-first century is still trying to find her place in the world. Although modern American women seem to have achieved equal status with their male counterparts, women have had the right to vote in this American society for only about eighty years, since 1920. During World War II, which began for the United States in 1941, women were given a taste of labor that included a paycheck. Before that time they were expected to the "keepers of the home." Postwar, women continued to fill positions in the work force, and the tides of change for American society began.

The debate concerning the roles of women in modern American culture is carrying on sixty years later. Should women return to "home and hearth," forsaking other goals in favor of the family unit? Contrary to rhetoric about the "separation of church and state," the United States is predominantly a Christian country, and the standards for Christianity have set the tone for American culture since its inception. Christian concepts have worked their way into every piece of the fabric of our society. Because our culture is so entrenched with the Christian faith, it is imperative for all women in this social structure to question the idea of females as lesser individuals in the Christian church. Was such a concept sanctioned by the God of the church or by men who consider themselves to be God's spokesmen?

The word religion comes from the Latin root meaning "to bind" or "to obligate." A powerful driving force for humanity has always been the tendency to form groups, to initiate and strengthen the "ties that bind," so religion serves several purposes well. First it attempts to answer questions about our origins. Secondly it "binds" civilizations together and "obligates" them to adhere to a set of rules and codes.

As integral to religion as are the codes and rules that bind it, so too are the basic belief systems that created it in the first place. The basis of most belief systems is rooted in the survival of its people. During the Paleolithic period in Europe, lasting from 40,000 to 10,000 B.C.E., fertility was a cornerstone to earliest religion for obvious reasons, and goddesses were created to celebrate "givers of life." Women were exalted for possessing the ability to give birth. Drawings in caves indicated the status of women: female symbols in the center with males surrounding. During the Neolithic period directly following, women were replaced by "mother earth," who was worshiped as both the giver and taker of life. women are thought to have been responsible, during this period, for the creation of agriculture as we know it, indicating that the roles of women started to reach beyond child bearing. Familial lines were matrilineal, traced through the mother. Gradually the formation of more complex religions ensued, and the prevalence of female statues and depictions began to diminish. Towards the end of the Neolithic period men took over the dominant role in agriculture, and a patriarchal society was born.

Hinduism is generally considered to be the earliest recorded organized religion, with Judaism lagging not too far behind. During the founding of these religions, the roles of females became less and less significant until, in some cultures, women were seen as little more than procreators, almost "necessary evils." Women in Babylonia are examples of females who were relegated to slightly less than second-class status. This civilization introduced one of the first written "Code of Laws" in the 18th century B.C.E. But the laws outlined in the Code of Hammurabi were not intended to benefit females. They were considered possessions.

Women of Egypt, during this time, fared a little better; they were allowed to own land or a business. Egyptians were considered permissive to their women, although they were still not given the same status as men. Females in ancient Greece had the worst existence of this age. Philosopher in Athens liked to believe that "women have strong emotions and weak minds." Because of this notion, women in Athens were assigned guardians who were usually their closest male relatives, and they were divided into strict categories. Wives were necessary for the procreation process but were mostly left to themselves and not allowed outside access to people or stimuli of any kind. Their primary responsibility was the upkeep of the home and the birthing of legitimate children for the husband. "Non-wives" filled all sorts of roles, the lowest form being those who lived in brothels or on the street. Hetearas were mistresses, taught to play instruments and make polite, informed conversation. Sexual favors were a given of course, but a heteara was actually a woman of learning and entertainment. In Rome, family was held in more esteem and that made a difference in the way women were treated. Roman women were not allowed to hold political offices, but they were allowed to make "suggestions" to men seeking advice. Roman women had lives outside the home.

Hebrew women did not have the freedom of Egyptians, but neither were they as repressed as the Athenians. their lives mirrored that of Roman women with one noted exception. Ancient Judea and the "Jews" were a different society than most of that time because of their monotheistic religion. Their lives centered around the covenant their God made to bring them to a land of their own called Canaan. The center of the Jewish faith is their belief in God's covenant. Judaism is also rooted in the Torah, the sacred texts Moses is said to have brought down from Mount Sinai on stone tablets.

Jesus of Nazareth was born to a Jewish husband and wife somewhere between 6 and 4 B.C.E. Several groups in Jewish communities predicted the coming of a Messiah who would deliver them from their woes with the Roman Empire. To most Jews, their Messiah was going to be a "revolutionary leader and military commander who would defeat the Romans and set up a Jewish state." When Jesus was, in fact, a pacifist who walked from village to village preaching love and kindness, most Jews were disappointed and refused to acknowledge him as their Messiah. Even Jesus' disciples called him into question when he dealt with prostitutes, or even with women in general; "Just then his disciples came. They marveled that he was talking with a woman"(John4:27). the resurrection of Jesus after his crucifixion in Rome plays a pivotal part in acceptance of him as a Messiah. Followers of Jesus spread the word the he would return and Rome's rule of Judea would be overthrown. Jesus' disciples worked hard to spread the word about Christ and his imminent return, but it wasn't until the conversion of Saul, re-christened Paul, that Christianity as a religion began to form.

Paul was a hellenized Jew who was born a Roman citizen in the city of Tarsus. He lived about thirty years after the death of Jesus, and although he began as an active persecutor of Christians, an experience while on the road to Damascus changed him dramatically. Paul concluded, after much study into Christ and his message, that he had not meant to save only Jews, but that his message was for everyone, including gentiles (non Jews). The creation of Christian churches was at first simple because services took places in people's homes, often held in different homes every week to keep Roman officials away. Christianity was an attractive religion for women because it preached acceptance of all people regardless of gender or wealth. Many early Christian writings lend some clarity to the roles of women in early Christian groups. Women held positions as teachers, missionaries and prophets. The Gospel of Philip was an epistle widely used during early Christianity, and it portrayed Mary Magdalene as the "companion of Jesus, in a position of very high authority within the early Christian movement."

The Gospel of Mary shows Mary Magdalene to be a leader of Jesus' disciples. She is shown in the text as a passionate speaker who inspired the disciples to evangelize the world. A woman named Philoumene in the 2nd century B.C.E. headed a Christian theological school in Rome. When the life and ministry of Jesus, upon whom Christianity is based, is scrutinized, his treatment of women seems to be the same as his treatment of men. A number of his followers during his ministry were women, and this equal treatment of his female followers probably inspired early Christianity to accept church leaders who were women.

As Christianity grew, so did its organization. Early churches started to be handled by boards of elders called Presbyters and deacons. By 200 CE, Christian churches had grown to a point that they began to employ bishops who were elected by the congregations, and soon church leaders gathered to compile what we recognize to be the Christian bible. Many writings, called gospels, were already being popularly used in Christian teachings. A synod of church leaders grappled and argued extensively and for many years before finally "canonizing" certain texts into books of the bible. The old testament consists mainly of the Jewish Talmud, with the new testament following Christ's ministry, death, and resurrection. There was much dissension among church leaders concerning which gospels would be canonical. Many gospels were not chosen simply because of the politics of the day.

Quite a few women are recorded in these "canonized" gospels who exhibited religious leadership. Deborah was a prophet and judge who headed the army of ancient Israel. In the book of Phillipians, Paul refers to two women as his co-workers, Euodia and Syntyche, active evangelicals. He also writes about Phoebe, a minister or deacon of the church a Cenchrea. Some names in Paul's records were altered to indicate masculine gender, when in fact they were women. A woman in the book of Romans, whom Paul said was "outstanding among the apostles," named Junia, became Junio. Paul talks about Priscilla, "a fellow worker for Christ," but some versions of the bible have tried to downgrade her status by using the word "helper." The original Greek word used was "synergoi," meaning literally "fellow worker." In the book of Galatians Paul implies that there is no distinction between male and female who are baptized into the family of Christ.

Regardless of women's obvious contributions to early Christianity, their roles began to shrink as organizational control took hold. During the 4th and 5th centuries CE, the Christian church began to eradicate women's access to positions of power within the church, declaring women to be forbidden from priesthood or presiding over churches. In 398 CE, a Synod of Carthage held forth that women were not to be allowed to teach men, and neither would they be allowed to baptize. Men of the Councils were quashing the rise of women in Christianity.

Catholic, meaning universal, became the official Christian church. To become a Christian, one now had to accept Christ as Lord, partake of the Eucharist, be baptized, and accept the statements of the Catholic faith. One bishop in Rome became the Pope, the central leader of the church. The church struggled against persecution, however, until Emperor Constantine converted to Christianity. His follower, Theodosius, declared Christianity the official state religion. The power of the church became absolute, and that power was not questioned for over a thousand years. During this time, the Catholic Church became a male dominated institution that exercised countless abuses of its power. Any individual who questioned the precepts was subject to an "inquisition," a cruel form of punishment meant to weed out heretics. Officials of the church often extorted money, and abuse of power among the clergy was rampant.

Martin Luther was a Catholic monk who posted his ninety-five theses on the church door in Wittenburg in 1517, calling for a debate among church authorities concerning their flagrant abuses of power. As Luther began to crusade for a "purer church," he studied church edicts closely and began to discard those not based in biblical scripture. Other reformers soon followed and Protestants were created. Females who were instrumental to this Reformation were Royal, such as Elizabeth I of England, and the women, former nuns, who became wives to the reformers. Protestant reformers sought to follow, as closely as possible, the scriptures of the bible and its directives for marriage: "A man will leave his father and mother and be united to his wife, and the two shall become one flesh, so they are no longer two but one. What God has joined together, let man not separate" (Mark 10:7-9). Because of Jesus' directives concerning marriage, reformers married for affection and partnership. Katherine Shutz married a reformer named Matthew Zell, and she threw herself into Reformation with a vengeance. She developed women's ministries and worked with refugees of the Reformation. she taught by her husband's side, and after his death she continued her role. Most Reformers treated their wives as partners, and much of the work involved in the successful emergence of Protestant churches was implemented by these husband-and-wife teams.

Despite great strides by women in the Reformation, 16th and 17th centuries CE, most females were still not seen as individuals. Restrictions on women in western Europe became tighter than ever. Laws concerning adultery were strict and harsh, and punishments for such acts were carried out regularly: a total of 30,000 women were put to death between 1560 and 1670. It is into this climate that the King James version of the bible was introduced, with fifty four men appointed to establish the new translation.

Unfortunately, biblical text has been used as a means of suppressing women in Christian society for generations. Bible verses such as these are often quoted: "Women are to be the keepers of the home and obedient to their husbands," Titus 2:5. "Let the women learn in silence with all subjection, for I suffer not a woman to teach, nor usurp authority over the man," 1 Timothy 2:11. "Let your women keep silent in the churches," 1 Corinthians 14:34. The books of Titus and Timothy have long been thought to be the work of Paul, but that theory is now being called into question. There are several passages in those books which seem to directly refute earlier opinions set forth by Paul. In 1 Timothy there is a passage which encourages young women to marry and bear children, yet Paul clearly discouraged marriage in a letter to the Corinthians. Another point raised is that most of Paul's contributions to the bible are in the form of letters to certain groups of individuals. 1 Corinthians 14:34 is referring to a group of women who had encouraged infighting and discord in that particular church; it was not intended to encompass ALL women, yet that passage is quoted most often as a means to keep women from ministry.

When a faction of simplistic Christian followers booked passage to America in the 17th century, their faith rooted itself into the soil of this new land and wound its way into the very infrastructure of society. They brought with them the King James version of the bible and rigid notions concerning women and their place in the world, which was "hearth and home." Christianity established a firm, unshakable foothold, and so, unfortunately, did beliefs concerning women and their second class status.

Nineteenth century America saw women still striving to establish their rights as fellow human beings, and many worked hard to retrieve leadership in the Christian church. Maggie Von Cott was a Methodist evangelist who conducted her first revival meeting in 1868. Anna Snowden was the first female theologian, receiving a degree from Boston University in 1876 despite intense male opposition. Many women during this era had more than one task in their male-dominated world. They were teachers, pioneers, and often they were mothers and wives, as well. They balanced their responsibilities with super-human strength.

At the beginning of the twentieth century, women still did not have the right to vote, nor did they have the right to own property. Ironically, the first woman was elected into congress in 1916, four years prior to the passing of women's suffrage. Into the 1930s and 40s, women continued to lobby for equal rights. Hatie Wyatt Caraway became the first elected woman to the U.S. Senate in 1932, and in 1933, Frances Perkins became the first female cabinet member as the Secretary of Labor. Eleanor Roosevelt was appointed to the United Nations in 1945, and she helped draft the Declaration of Human Rights and later, the Declaration of the Rights of Women. In 1963, Congress passed the Equal Pay Act, causing conservative America to realize that women in the work force were there to stay. The 1960s was a decade of extreme change for the United States, and women's rights were a cornerstone of those changes. Women finally had the right to control their choice to become pregnant; conservative Christian beliefs were finally separated from popular culture-or so it seemed.

As female America has been chipping away at the wall separating it from traditional male institutions such as politics, medicine, and science, the Christian church has been a rusty wheel, grinding towards equality at a snail's pace. The first woman was ordained to ministry in 1852, but that ordination didn't create a wave of acceptance. In 1865 however, the Salvation Army Church openly accepted women in leadership roles, but most denominations did not formally recognize ordained women for another century. Two major religions who remain steadfast in their refusals to allow women leadership positions are the two largest.

The Southern Baptist Church has been riddled with struggles about the topic of women as leaders within the church, finally allowing some leeway with 1600 ordained female pastors, 30 who serve as senior pastors to their congregations. The Roman Catholic church, too, has remained steadfast on the issue of females as priests, siting scripture as their reasoning for the stance. There are factions of the church, though, that believe differently, and the debate rages on.

Anne Graham Lotz, daughter of famous evangelist Billy Graham, felt the call to evangelism although she's been careful to call herself a "bible expositor." She is in essence, however, a preacher. Texas evangelist Beth Moore has begun touring, as has Kay Arthur, another gifted speaker who devotes her life to the calling.

The link between American culture and the Christian faith is undeniable. For centuries women have been fighting, both in and out of church buildings, to be seen as viable, equitable, and capable. They have had to claw their way up from archaic, erroneous beliefs to reach a level of independence most women in history could only dream about, but the climb is far from over. Women still make significantly less money in the work force, they still bear the brunt of parenthood, and many still wonder if "home and hearth" is where they belong. The climb continues.